Article rebuttal

I located an article on CNN. Com the article is â€Å"Why we should not legalize marijuana†. The author states that marijuana is the commonly abused illegal drug in the U. S. , and around the world. The author also states that marijuana makes it totally impossible for a person using it to function and live a normal daily life. The author believes everyone who uses this drug she have penalties against them. I disagree, because the author is not stating facts and the information she provided In the article does is not reliable because she is going off of her opinions.I know many people who smoke marijuana and many people who use other drugs. Marijuana would not do much harm, I know a lot of people who are successful college graduates who used marijuana all throughout college and in their careers. Although I have never smoked a day in my life. I have reliable sources who have and decided to question them. I questioned friends who smoke marijuana, and friends who used to smoke mar ijuana. In my Interviews with friends and a few family members the ones who smoked told me It relaxes them and helps them focus more and have a clear vision on the things.The ones who quit says marijuana helped them perform better in school and feel stress free and that the only reason they quit was because of employment purposes. There are other drugs out there such as crack cocaine that can cause bodily harm and damage and even death while using, or overdose. You can not over dose on marijuana, marijuana can not cause serious harm. Being that marijuana can not cause you any serious harm or causes anyone to lose their life. I think It should be legalized and people should not get In trouble for having It. It should be their choice since no serious side effects occur

A Psychological/ Profile Report Essay

This paper makes use of profiling questions and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test in order to create a profile or psychological report. The subject of this profile report is a person with whom the interviewer feels comfortable with, specifically, a person whom he knows well. The interviewee’s responses to the profiling questions will be analyzed and compared against the interviewer’s knowledge of the interviewee’s behavior and personality. This is not a clinical report and it should not be used for assessing psychopathology or recommending any kind of psychological treatment for the interviewee. Instead, the objective of this interview is merely to know the interviewer better. Since the interview was not conducted by a professional psychologist, inferences found in this report must be viewed with skepticism. Demographic Information: The subject of this report is a twenty-six year old female, a single mom who works as a home-based web content writer for a year now. Prior to pregnancy and her home-based job, she used to an investigative writer for an intellectual property (IP) rights firm. She also worked as a magazine in a lifestyle magazine before. Her baby is now almost a year old and she lives with her sister. In accordance to the confidentiality precept of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test, the identity of the interviewee will be kept private. To refer to the interviewee, the name â€Å"Fray† will be used in this report. (Myers, I. et al, 1998) Responses to the profiling questions Does the interviewee remember information more accurately if he/she observes the behavior being performed or does he/she prefer to read how the behavior is performed? Fray prefers to read how the behavior is performed. Simply said, she wants to interpret actions and behaviors in accordance to her past experiences and knowledge. She uses her general understanding of societal interactions in her attempts to interpret or understand the way people interact with her or the way other people respond to their environment. Furthermore, she thinks that actions must be viewed in a cause and effect pattern. For her, everything happens for a reason and the way people behave is probably a product of how the society interacted with them. The interviewer agrees with Fray’s responses. She has observed that Fray often likes to make insinuations on other people based on how they talk and act in public. Q2: Does the interviewee prefer studying in a library, or at home where there are background noises and some distractions? Fray opts to study at home but she noted that the preference is merely because she feels more inclined to study when she is alone inside her room. She also notes that she can tolerate the presence of background noises and some distractions which are typical in her home setting. In addition to that, she pointed out that she might also prefer to study in a library, provided that the place is not teeming with hushed but busy people who keep on walking around. The interviewer notes that the fact that Fray prefers a surrounding that’s solemn is probably part of the reason why she also prefers to work at home.

Baderman Island Resort: Mission and Vision

Baderman Resort provides its guests various options to relax and entertain themselves at their prime location situated at the shores of the Kelsey river. The resort is self contained with many restaurants of different types, three hotels namely Baderman Main Hotel, The Tenney and Melancon Convention Center and Hotel. Apart form this there is a botanical garden, fairway, recreation center, and a spa. Apart from this the island boasts various shopping and eating locations. An art gallery tops the list with in-house collections and exhibits borrowed from other collections around the world.Baderman being an island resort has services oriented totally towards customer needs. The prime concern for Baderman is to offer its customers a place to relax, be entertained and enjoy their time alone or with their families. With this defined, Badermans mission statement should be as follows: ‘We are in the business of leisure and tourism through providing world class services to our clients in the form of a peaceful, serene environment with the best service and calming atmosphere.We provide scenic views, relaxation and enjoyment for our clients, their families and business colleagues all the while keeping in mind the interests of our stakeholders being owners of restaurants and hotels within the island as well as business partners. ’ This mission statement covers all aspects that a mission statement should cover namely the type of business, service offered to customers and benefit to stakeholders.The statement highlights the right target market being any one who wants to have a good time and quality service at Baderman whether alone, with families or whether to conduct business. Baderman offers everything for any of the above types of customers. Vision: Baderman’s vision should be to keep its scenic views unadulterated and increase the quality level and amount of services that it offers to its customers. It should in the near future train all its employees in hospitality and customer care.It has two choices, either it expands to offer more locations and thus increase its capacity as well to accommodate a larger amount of customers or it finds a niche and attracts a specific set of customers and to do so adds more elements to its current plans. Whatever the route it takes, it will have to make a few changes in the current setup it has and training employees in the long run. It should provide a helipad, a private airstrip, more restaurants with various cuisines, more spas and saunas, sports facilities etc.It can also provide season specific amenities to its guests. In the end it should exercise strict quality management. In the leisure industry, if anything slightly goes wrong, it spreads all over and leaves the resort with a bad name. Bad service to accidents can all be the cause for a bad name. Due to this reason the staff should be properly trained and strict controls will need to be put in order to maintain the highest quality stand ard possible for the targeted market.

Development of Professionalism in new Registered Nurses Essay

Development of Professionalism in new Registered Nurses - Essay Example A welldressed appearance tends to convey a higher level of knowledge and a sincere interest in advancement; on the other hand, a disheveled worker gives the impression of being a disinterested, marginal performer (Townsel, 1996). In general, some registered nurses (RNs) have been perceived to be relatively unconcerned about first impressions because their employers often have policies that dictate dress codes and behaviors (Sullivan, 2004). As nurses move toward a professional practice, they are becoming more cognizant of how their appearance, behavior, and communication influence the first impressions of others. The first impression should be positive, communicating a message to others about the self. Initially, it communicates how the nurse feels and respects the self. Projecting a positive image communicates that the nurse cares about herself or himself; therefore, the impression is that he or she will "take good care of me." While the primary concern of the nurse may not be about projecting a positive image, first impressions are an important foundation in building a trusting relationship in a society that values physical appearance (Arnold & Boggs, 2004; Navarra, Lipkowitz, & Navarra, 1990; Sullivan, 2004). Business professionals have known for years that professional image is an important aspect to success. Numerous books and articles have been written about business attire and social skills. The closing of a business deal often relies on the relationships rather than the performance of excellent work. Because health care is a form of business, successful professionals must attract a s table, growing patient population in order to survive. Physicians have known for a long time that developing relationships with patients and projecting a positive public image helps build a practice; however, this may be a new experience for the entry-level nurse. Most nurses are institutional employees, but this does not change their professional status of responsibility and visibility. Nurses must consider the importance of the first impression, whether it is during their day-today practice, a job interview, a meeting, or a presentation. Additionally, nurses have an integral role in health care delivery in the United States, and they need to create a positive public image individually and collectively. Appearance, behavior, and communication have a cumulative effect on the professional image. The purpose of this article is todiscuss the nurse's professional appearance, and behaviors relevant to securing a position, making a professional presentation, or participating in meetings. Historical Perspective Historically, dress and behavior for students and practicing nurses were dictated strongly by dress codes and strict disciplinary protocols developed by hospital administrators in charge of nurses (Kalisch & Kalisch, 1996). Personality may have had little opportunity to emerge from the starch white uniforms and pulled back hair donned in a white cap (Arnold & Boggs, 2004; Sullivan, 2004). However, times have changed; most nursing students today are thrilled with the independence and career opportunities that have evolved for nurses at multiple levels, including those in advanced practice nursing. As the professional nursing arena

The Iranian Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Iranian Revolution - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the Iranian Revolution (also referred to as the Islamic Revolution/1979 Revolution) details the events entailing the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty ruled by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was considered a close ally to western governments such as the U.S. The demonstrations against the Shah regime started in October 1977 and developed in to a widespread campaign of civil resistance that can be regarded as partly religious and secular, and reached fever pitch in January 1978. The royal reign ultimately collapsed shortly after the defeat of the loyal troops by guerrilla and rebel troops in armed street battles. After the fall of Pahlavi Dynasty, Iran voted to adopt an Islamic Republic mode of governance, and endorse a fresh democratic-theocratic hybrid Constitution on which Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country as from December 1979. The Iranian Revolution came as a surprise to many, as well as to Shah of Iran. The Iranian rev olution was a surprise to many given that it lacked the majority of the routine causes of revolution; it generated immense changes at a fast speed, was immensely popular among the masses; and, substituted a modernizing autocratic monarchy with a theocracy grounded in the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists. Even at the height of street protests and demonstrations, neither Iranians nor its key allies such as the U.S officials perceived the possibility that Iran’s armed troops, which was highly modernized and the largest, would be incapable of dealing with the revolutionaries.... Even at the height of street protests and demonstrations, neither Iranians nor its key allies such as the U.S officials perceived the possibility that Iran’s armed troops, which was highly modernized and the largest, would be incapable of dealing with the revolutionaries (Coughlin 4). The causes of the Iranian Revolution can be traced to happenings that long predated it. In 1963, the Shah launched his â€Å"White Revolution† detailing a series of radical reforms fashioned at modernizing and westernizing Iran. Although, the instituted reforms generated rapid economic growth, they also yielded to social dislocation, speedy urbanization, and the incorporation of western habits and customs by the ruling elite, which alienated traditionalists and pious religious elements within Iranian society (Abrahamian 6). The undertaken reforms also threatened to undermine the economic base and persuasion on Iran’s clerical establishments by alienating the clergy from the regime. This ultimately proved catastrophic in the end with the collapse of the monarch (Amuzegar 10). Although, the Shah enjoyed the support of Iran’s upper and middle classes, he did not respond adequately to the rising discontent among the ultra-conservative. Shah had sectional support from some clerics who viewed him as a substitute to the political left. Nevertheless, other clerics were dissatisfied with the way in which the monarch was running its affairs. The clerics associated Shah with his father’s actions in 1936 when he barred clerics from acting as judges within state courts. Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwa (religious edict) against the proposed reform and who

Review of Literature Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Review of Literature - Dissertation Example Even if not all of the education content is retained, exposure to the education content can lead to additional knowledge that can be useful for both the child and to the society he or she lives in. Thus, attendance is crucial and measures to improve school attendance are just as crucial as education content itself. 2. Importance of Attendance Based on the data and analysis of the National Center for Children in Poverty, around 11 percent of children in the kindergarten and about nine percent in the first grade are chronically absent (Chang and Romero, 2008, p. 7). Chronic absence means that the student has at least 11 percent absences during a 180 days schooldays (Chang and Romero, 2008, p. 6). Chronic absence among third grade students is about six percent (Change and Romero, 2008, p. 7). The National Center for Children in Poverty researchers even believe that the estimates are even conservative because attendance data are missing among schools serving low-income and minority stude nts At the same time, Chang and Romero (2008, p. 4) pointed out that chronic absence can be masked even when average daily attendance appears high. In their elaboration, Chang and Romero said (2008, p. 4): â€Å"Suppose, for example, a school has 200 students and an average daily attendance rate of 95%. The same 10 students, however, are not absent for all 180 days as they would be dis-enrolled. Rather, it is quite possible that the 10 students missing each day occurs because the school is serving 60 students who are taking turns being absent but when absences are added together, miss a month or more of school over the course of the school year. In summary, even in a school with 95% daily attendance, 30% of the student population could be chronically absent.† ... In summary, even in a school with 95% daily attendance, 30% of the student population could be chronically absent.† The key point of the Chang and Romero analysis (2008, p. 4) is that an absences rate of even a very small percentage like 5% can imply that a large number of students may be chronically absent from classes. Unfortunately, however, the incidence of chronic absences are high although chronic early absences from school ranged from one percent to 54.5 across schools in a district where the prevalence of chronic absences among elementary students was about 13.8 percent overall (Chang and Romero, 2008, p. 7). Data from Yeide and Kobrin (2009, p. 2) proved that Chang and Romero (2008) were right about their analysis: in New York City, more than 30% of the youth were chronically absent during school year 2007-08 but the average attendance rate for each grade during the year was at least 90 percent. Yet, despite the high chronic absenteeism associated with the attendance r ate of at least 90%, many schools consider 90 percent attendance rate as an acceptable target (Yeide and Kobrin, 2009, p. 2). In addition, Yeide and Kobrin (2009, p. 2) reported that dropouts are excluded from truancy calculations. The combination of chronic absenteeism, truancy, and dropouts resulted to a situation in which only about two-thirds of ninth graders were expected to graduate in New York City during the year. Studies show that chronic absenteeism is a serious problem among elementary students in the United States. For instance, in New York City, more than 20 percent of elementary school students missed at least a month of school during school year 2007-2008. There even districts of the City where around 30 percent of

Development of a Model Aviation Safety Program for General Aviation Research Proposal

Development of a Model Aviation Safety Program for General Aviation Companies - Research Proposal Example The proposed project is principally concerned with the development of a Model Aviation Safety Program for General Aviation organizations. It has been viewed that a dramatic innovation process of change is currently taking place in the international aviation sector for the purpose of assisting the airspace to comply with future demands. In relation to aviation safety, the two utmost priority areas are the human factors and the technology factors. In relation to the human factors, the errors caused manually could eventually lead towards safety issues. In relation to the technological factors, when the technology fails to perform its functions, it also gives rise to a significant degree of safety issues. Thus, it can be stated that proper maintenance of the technology gadgets in an airplane and in the control room along with adequate training to the individuals related with the aviation industry is essential for exhibiting an advanced aviation safety program (Aviation Safety Corps, n.d. ). The research as well as the development of the project will intend to provide a brief description of the importance or the need of developing various models or safety programs relating to aviation sector for the general aviation companies. Various theories, models as well as relevant concepts will be used in the project in order to meet with the project outcome. The project will address the concern towards the development of various programs relating to aviation safety for the general aviation companies. Moreover, the project will endeavor to reveal critical thinking, delivering comprehensive as well as realistic information with the purpose of helping in recognizing the crucial steps about developing aviation safety programs that are often signified as quite essential for the general aviation companies. By the implementation of the sources

Advanced Principles of Human Computer Interaction Essay

Advanced Principles of Human Computer Interaction - Essay Example This matte area is marginally raised from the surface for a functional reason. On the matte area, on the four points of the compass are four playback buttons. At the north, a point is a â€Å"MENU† button that allows you to navigate through the menus. At the west, a point is a step back button. At the south, a point is a play/pause button. At the last point is a step forward button.   The MENU button takes you from the normal screen to a menu screen that allows you to navigate to different capabilities including â€Å"Music†, â€Å"Photos† and â€Å"Videos† options on the menu. You can then enter each of these menus and navigate through them and if you want to go back up to the previous level of the menu then you can just press the MENU button again. This allows you to move back through the menu systems if you have made a mistake during your navigation. Each time that you press it will take you to the next level up in the menu system until you reappear at the original screen that you started from.   The step back button allows you to go back to the beginning of the playback of an item should you wish to. It allows you to return to the start of a song or a movie if you should need to do that. If you press the button twice then you will return to the start of the previous item and each time that press the button after that you will be moved to the item before that until you reach the start of the playlist. The step forward works in reverse since clicking on it will take you one item further on for every click of the button until the end of the playlist   The play/pause button determines the playback of items depending on the number of times you press the button. If you press it once then the item will play and if you press it twice then the track or video will freeze in place and continue from that spot when the button is pressed again.

Central Park Five and Scotts Brothers Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Central Park Five and Scotts Brothers - Article Example From this paper it is clear that the crime of rape/sexual assault in the context of these two cases is a race crime. It is imagined that since the Black and Latino  boys were around when the rape cases occurred, they are expected to have a link with the occurrence. Black and Latino  have long been linked to crime cases.This study outlines that  for Scottsboro Boys, the press mobilized the public to always consider the sentence on the boys a miscarriage of justice. The media always questioned the way in which the case was conducted. The same applied for The Central Park Five that had the press always insisting that the boys were innocent and the case was simply made-up. For the two cases, the fact that the reporter considers most contemptible is the reality that the youth of the boys in question was robbed. For The Central Park Five, he is shocked that the police ignored there existing no physical evidence. For Scottsboro Boys, I am surprised that only black boys were arrested.   Miscarriage of justice is evident in the two cases. As Burns et al indicate, it is true that Raymond, Kevin, Antron, Yusef and Kharey witnessed weird behaviors in the park. Forcing them to confess to the rape case is indeed illegal. The same applies to Scottsboro Boys who were falsely accused of the rape of two women in 1931 whilst on a train. The constitutional right to have proper evidence prior to sentencing was violated.

Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing - Essay Example One of the most common strategies that have been employed in hospitals to curb this predicament is the nursing competency assessment, especially in the ICU (Intensive Care Unit). This strategy is significantly striving to eliminate this deadly infection. This article will review literatures which analyze the ongoing versus annual nursing competency assessments that are aimed at decreasing the number of central line blood stream infections in the ICU. It is estimated that approximately 41,000 central line-associated bloodstream infections occur yearly in the United States alone. Research shows that these infections are liable for between 4 to 20% of the deaths that occur in the country annually. This shows that between 500 to 40,000 patients die yearly as a result of the bloodstream infections. In most health centers in the US, it is recommended that patients are grouped into the insertion bundle and the care bundle. Experts claim that combining nursing practices and technology can si gnificantly reduce these infections. Most of the hospital teams in the United States have asserted that the nursing competency assessment has significantly reduced the number of patients with bloodstream infections in the Intensive Care Unit (Harnage, 2007). This assessment usually involves educating the nurses on the best approach to employ when handling the patients with these infections. For example, they are usually taught several methods of improving hand hygiene. This measure has empowered hand hygiene as part of the Central Line placement. According to Harnage (2007), most health centers have hand hygiene dispensers which are frequently checked. The assessment of nurses, physicians and other medical personnel is usually accompanied with an annual assessment of the personnel in order to decrease the bloodstream infections in the Intensive Care Unit. This assessment involves a periodical knowledge assessment of adherence to certain guidelines involved in the Intensive Care Unit . In most cases, nurses who are competent in the care of such patients are usually situated in the Intensive Care Unit. After the assessment, these nurses are known as intensive care nurses. This shows that intensive care nurses form an integral part in reducing the bloodstream infections. Most health centers, which aim for a high level of compliance, usually ensure that they prevent such infections. Therefore, nurses should be empowered to supervise the preparations during a line insertion by using a checklist that is aimed at preventing such infections (Harnage, 2007). Hatler, Zack, Hebden and Kaler (2010), noted that it is clear that clinical nurses form an integral part in optimizing the outcomes of a patient especially through monitoring and management of the patient. The bloodstream associated infections have a severe impact on mortality and cost of care. The intensive care nurses are responsible for providing the necessary care to such patients. There are several health cente rs that have devised other strategies beyond the common Central Line bundle to reduce the number of bloodstream infection in the Intensive Care Units (Richardson & Tjoelker, 2012). Some of the institutions have included a thorough nurse surveillance system. This is a valuable strategy that aims in ensuring optimal patient outcomes. According to a recent survey, this strategy has decreased the rate of deaths in the Intensive Care Unit and the Critical Care Unit significantly. In most instances, these infections usually prolong the hospitalization of a patient to an average of seven days and an approximate cost of between $3700 and $29500 (Richardson & Tjo

Strategy Recommendations for Franchise Opportunities for Mr. Empanada Research Paper

Strategy Recommendations for Franchise Opportunities for Mr. Empanada - Research Paper Example Empanada include reducing operational costs while also drawing new customers (Mr. Empanada). The restaurant may not have the option often enjoyed by larger franchises of lowering the prices of offerings. Another challenge is in handling business in such a way that the restaurant remains productive even during quiet times (Mr. Empanada Franchise Corporation). Often, restaurants make a lot of profit during busy times but face challenges when there are not many customers. The Mr. Empanada also has to find more advanced ways of advertising is products in a way in which it will be able to reach distant customers. Another challenge lies in finding ways to retain current consumers. The Mr. Empanada restaurant creates products that are unique in taste as well as fare. To maintain its reputation as the best producer of Empanadas, the restaurant’s owners have to find ways of entering into agreements with the suppliers who provide them with the best raw materials. Signage To remain relev ant, Mr. Empanada also has to use the latest technology in order to retain customers who are impressed with the quick and efficient service. Good signage is one way of achieving this because it can increase a business’s opportunity for success. For instance, Mr. Empanada can utilize digital menu boards in its operations. Digital menu boards ensure that employees constantly have access to the latest information. This means that they will be able to improve productivity, efficiency, and patron satisfaction. Digital menu boards are easy to customize and can even be utilized as training devices because they can assist prospective workers in learning how to gather pertinent information relating to the restaurants and its assorted operations. Digital menu boards can also assist customers to observe their waiting times. It is a known fact that customers are often less frustrated about waiting for long periods of time when they have distractions. Customers can also learn about the co ntents of their orders through the digital menu boards. These implements will not only reduce the time in which people order, but also reduce the number of irritated clients that the staff has to handle. Location Location is quite important for any restaurant. Good food or even excellent service may not be enough to bring about the success of a restaurant if it is located in a bad neighborhood or area with no traffic. The best location is one that is easily accessible. Mr. Empanada, which is seeking to expand into new regions, should consider accessible sites that also do not require a lot of capital. Another option could be leasing space. In such cases, it is best to use the services of lawyers and consultants who understand the details of the fine print. Brokers should also be consulted on the best sites to situate a restaurant business. The management should also investigate the traffic in the selected area, as well as their dining habits. To attract new customers, Mr. Empanada c an invest in new locations that have potential customers such as working people or college students who often return home or purchase food from supermarkets during lunchtime. Shopping malls Mall culture has grown to be perceived as an avenue for big business, as malls have been transformed into multi-storied sophisticated structures that contain diverse shops. There are some reasons why investing in a branch that is ensconced within a shopping mall could be beneficial for Mr. Empanada. One of the most critical is

Education Is Life Iself Essay Example for Free

Education Is Life Iself Essay Once John Dewey said, â€Å"Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.† It is quite difficult, even impossible to contend for the statement. We should clearly understand that education is a long process which lasts for the whole life. More than that life is the best teacher we might ever have. In other words, we can denote that we live educating ourselves and educate ourselves for living. First of all, it is interesting to note that the notions â€Å"education† and â€Å"life† can be regarded as identical ones. The matter is that speaking about education we keep in mind that it is not just a period of life but a lifelong process of learning. As Albert Einstein once noticed, â€Å"Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at growth.† Keeping to the point it should be also mentioned that education can be given and taken anywhere – at school, university or home. It doesn’t matter. However, there is no better teacher than life itself. Nobody can dispute it. People learn much deeper and more effectively through their own actions and mistakes. Life motivates, directs, controls and evaluates us. Life teaches us. What is more important, life is always fair towards us. That is why we consider life to be the best teacher. To sum up, it should be said that every person has his own attitude towards education. For some people education seems to be an obligation, even a burden, for others it is the meaning of life, for the rest it can be a means to achieve some higher goals†¦ but there is no doubt, education is the most powerful tool that has a certain impact on our lives. The other question is how to use this tool. Nukhayeva Kamila

Studying The Functions Of The Bank Of England Finance Essay

Studying The Functions Of The Bank Of England Finance Essay Introduction The Bank of England also known as the central Bank of England. In 1964 it started as the joint stock company, and in return for a large loan to the government was put in privileged position which enabled it to be a largest private bank. It was then authorized to hold the large gold reserves of the banking system of UK. In 1844 note issuing powers were terminated other than via bank, which become as the monopoly supplier. Before coming as the bank of England Act 1946, it was under the control of the treasury. It is managed by the Court of Directors, headed by the governor, who is appointed by the crown. Since 1844, the balance sheet of the bank was divided into two halves, namely as: Issue Department (concerned with the notes issuance). Banking Department (concerned with other banking). Functions of Bank of England Bank of England Act in 1946 defines the constitutional relationship between bank and the government as follows: The treasury of the bank of England can give the instruction to the bank time by time as, after constitution with the governor of the bank, they think necessary in the public interest. The Act makes no specific reference to the banks responsibilities and duties because they were considered to be well established by the customs and practices. Overall, the Bank of England performs the following: BoE is responsible for the issuance of notes and coins, BoE acts as banker to the central government, BoE acts as banker in the banking sector, BoE manages the Exchange Equalization Account, BoE is conscientious for the precise timing of interest rate changes, BoE as well supervises the banking sector. As per the Governor of the Bank of England, Mr. George in 1996, three major purposes are: Maintaining the honor and value of currency; Maintaining the stability of financial system, both internal and external, Ensuring the effectiveness of the UKs financial services. Role of Bank of England in oversight of Core UK Payment Systems Introduction Basically, Payment system is playing a major role in the development of the economic and financial infrastructure. One of key functions of the UK payment system is to allow transactions to be completed securely and well in time, makes a good involvement to overall financial development. It is essential to be considering that payment systems can also involve risks for members, and can be a gateway for the transmission of disorder from economy or financial system to another. Therefore central bank has always taking steps to develop and operate the Payment system to control this systemic risk. The Banks lapse of payment systems is a major part of its responsibilities for Financial and monetary solidity. The basic function, the Banks lapse work is to identify risks posed by the defining, developing and operate of payment systems and to take necessary steps to control them. A payment system is a system that allows its users to transfer money, it varies from country to country and location to location. In this modern era, in most developed countries, monetary system is regarded as cash ie notes and coins issued by the central bank and can be claims against credit institutions in the form of deposits. Payment system is a safe way to complete a transaction safely and well in time. Companies can use them when they want to buy or sell goods and services and individuals depend on them to receive their wages and for purchases; and Government depends on them to receive taxes and other benefits. Through a payment system a customer can make payment to the customer of other banks. These interconnections mean that, that a customer who hold the money with a bank can focus on their balances, cost and quality of the services and others like credit standings with their banks. The volume of the UK payments system has been considerably increased from the last few years. As for as the payment system concern for the efficiency and effectiveness of the UKs financial sector both domestically, for the stabilization the UK economy, and internationally, to invest in the UK business and financial markets. Working with financial market participants, the Bank plays a vital role to develop and improve the UK payment system so that the investors can enjoy the benefits. The Bank seeks to support market-led development but take a more active part in catalyzing market initiatives the operational role. Bank of England oversight Role for payments That is the major responsibility of the bank to oversight the payment system and as well the stability of the financial system. As the values of payment systems have increased, but at the same time theres an increase in the risk management have become an important issue. The Banks oversight role relates to its operational role as the provider of the central bank money to some of the payment systems and as final provider of liquidity to the banking system and to the stability of the economy more widely. The Bank: The bank of England is entirely responsible for the settlement of CHAPS sterling and CHAPS Euro. The bank of England is responsible to provide the intra day liquidity of CHAPS Sterling and CHAPS Euro by way of reserves against their securities. The main function of the bank of England is to oversee the payment system and to ensure that sufficient weight has given to risk reduction and management and to view their development and operation. However, the BoE taking an interest in promoting payment systems, proper lapse of the competitive upbringing for systems, their members and their users is a subject for the competition authorities. b) Major Developments in UK Payment System in 2008 In the year 2008 theres many changes in the UK payment system because in this year  £200 trillion were passed. The UK Payment system development and performance can be assessed by the systematic payment Core Principles. Through these core principles in 2008 theres main payment system development in UK. CLC and SWIFT are two international infrastructures in the faster payment services and development. To assess the performance and flexibility of the payment system Core principles were developed. These differentiate between the systems and the risk related to their operations and as well the basic tools developed by the bank to avoid these risks. For this purpose bank has developed Oversight Risk Framework. In the year 2008, most important risks to the systems relate to the settlement risks in the event that a member becomes bankrupt, and as well to the operational risks of failure of a system or its supporting network. Overall, the most significant risks identified by the support relate to the main wholesale payment systems. This reflects the blow of Out ages of these systems for economic and financial activity in the United Kingdom. CHAPS One of the most important Payment System in UK is known as CHAPS that provides real time gross settlement of transfers between members which eliminates credit risk. Since, the CHAPS Euro closed in 2008; it is now consist of CHAPS Sterling. The relationship between the Bank and CHAPS Clearing Company is governed by the Memorundam thats known as Memorundam of Understanding. In the year 2008, daily value of CHAPS Sterling was around  £280 billion, thats make it largest UK Payment system. CHPAS played a vital role in distributing the liquidity and mitigation of risks within CHAPS and its real time gross settlement infrastructure in UK financial system During 2008, CHAPS volume fell while values remained constant. There are two reasons for the reduction in volume: Down turn in economic activity may caused fewer CHAPS payments to be made, such as those associated with the housing transaction. Smaller payments could be migrating to the faster payment services which launched in May 2008. There were more signs that volume falling more rapidly in the second half of 2008. In this real time world the largest gross settlement system is the CHAPS sterling which is as well used by the banks to move money around the fiscal system through the following ways: Payments from one Business to other Business. Payment made through the Solicitor for the purchase of house to other party or bank By the individuals who are selling the high value items. Such as car which require guaranteed payments. CREST CREST is as well one of the best Payment System that provides a payment settlement service for gold, shares, and money market technique in both sterling. CREST supervised by the Financial Service Authority (FSA), and the BoE responsible for its oversight. It is a totally owned firm of Euro clear SA/NV and is an RTGS system. As stated in 2009 BoE report, the average daily value of transactions in the sterling element of the system was  £478 billion per day in 2008, and its daily volume reached 211,559. Three types of payments can be made through CREST: Real-time gross settlement in central bank money in sterling. RTGS in central bank money in euro A mutual net settlement arrangement for transactions in US dollars. Bacs As in the change in the technology it changes all the ways of living and work styles, in the same way it changes the payments methods. So, people are choosing automated methods of payment as compare to paper based like cheques and drafts. In 2008 a record of 4.8 billion automated payments in UK has been noted. 92 % of automated payments are bulk transactions generated by the small and large business organisations and are: Direct debits mainly to pay utility bills, life and general insurance premiums and various subscriptions; Direct credits, used for salary payments, pensions, annuities and child benefit. The remaining 8% is made up of inter-bank telephone and online banking payments and standing order payments. Standing Orders Basically, a standing order is an instruction an account holder give to bank or building society to make payments, usually on a regular basis, to a UK bank or building society account. Any person or company with a current account at a bank or building society in the UK can set up a standing order. Your bank or building society will, on the day specified, debit your account and transfer the money to the bank or building society account of the recipient. The money will be transferred either through The Bacs system or increasingly from June 2008 through. The Faster Payments Service.   If it goes via Bacs it will arrive with the recipient within three working days, e.g. for a standing order initiated on a Monday, the earliest it could arrive would be the Wednesday. However, standing orders processed via Faster Payments will be processed on the same day. Internet and Phone In the last few years theres a huge increase in the internet and phone banking that rise the automated payment. The 22.5 million customer are registered with online facility and more than half using internet for making payments, and 40% people from other half (12.3 million) people using telephone banking to make payments. Internet and phone banking transactions are processed as Faster Payments or as one-off Credit using the same three day Bacs system and so followed the three day timescales developed for bulk payments (Direct Debits and Direct Credits). Cheques Cheques are the written orders by the account holders instructing their banks to pay the specified amount to the named person. Cheques are not legal tenders but they are legal documents and their use is governed by the Bills of Exchange Act 1982, and the cheques Act 1957 and 1992. Bankers drafts Bankers drafts are cheques drawn directly on the account of a bank rather than the account of a customer. They provide added assurance as the bankers drafts are unlikely to be returned unpaid due to lack of funds. However, it is important to note that they do not provide a guarantee against fraudulent use. For example, they may be lost or stolen and then used fraudulently. Daily Averages in 2008 Volumes, value and payment types (daily average) Payment Systems Volumes Values ( £ millions) Important Payment Types Substitute CHAPS 136196 283745 1. Settlement in Financial Market Settlement. 2. CLS pay ins and pay outs. 3. House Purchases 1. CHAPS sterling bypass mode 2. Manual procedure for making small number of Bank Transmission. Bacs 22266734 15537 1. Salary and Benefit Payments. 2. Bill payment by direct debit. 3. Telephone and internet banking. 1. Perhaps minimum scope for switching to other instruments in the short term e.g. Cheques, Cash. Faster Payment Services 939866 310 1. Telephone and internet banking. 2. Single immediate payment. 3. Forward dated payments. 4. Standing order payments. 1. Bacs 2. Cash 3. Card Network. Visa ( Credit and Debit Card) 14997260 836 1. Payments for goods and services by consumers and business. 1. Cheques 2. Other Networks 3. Cash Master Cards(Credit and Debit Cards) 10742466 593 1. Payments for goods and services by consumers and business. 1. Cheques 2. Other Networks 3. Cash Link 7797260 306 1. Withdrawal of cash using an ATM not operated by customer own bank. 1. Own bank ATM 2. Other cash withdrawal channels CREST 211559 477512 1. Settlement in respect of cash margin payments. 2. Payments for commodity deliveries. 3. Cash settlement If disruption does not prevent calculation of settlement obligation, contingency payments, procedure may be invoked. D). Core Principles The Bank has adopted some principles, among of these principles few provided a basis for the Banks non statutory oversight up to now and the few other principles related to the UK Payment system. All these principles were adopted by the bank for consultation during 28th September and 30th October. These principles are: Principle 1 The Payment System must have well legal basis under the relevant jurisdictions. The Bank of England notes in 2009 that this is one of the well suited principle for CHAPS as well in 2003 International Monetary Fund observes thats the best principle for CHAPS. In a financial report by International Monetary Fund it is also noted that Bank of England and Wales govern the CHAPS rules, and the Courts of England and Wales also exercise exclusive jurisdiction over any disputes in connection with these rules. The system designed under the rules of Financial Market Regulation in 1999 that was implement the European Union settlement and was finally implemented in United Kingdom. Principle 2 The systems rules and procedures should enable participants to have a clear understanding of the systems impact on each of the financial risks they incur through participation in it. As per the Bank of England report in 2009, CHAPS observes this principle. In 2003 International Monetary Fund draw a conclusion that CHAPS rule set out high level rights and duties of the members, membership criteria and operational criteria. The report issued by Bank of England in 2009 self assessment mentions a Memorandum of Understanding that sets out the rights and responsibilities of the Bank of England as operator and settlement agent of CHAPS; CHAPCo, as the member of the system and the payment organization. CHAPS rule contain the detail procedures and operational manuals that cover all the aspects of the payment system. Principle 3 The system should have clearly defined procedures for the management of credit risks and liquidity risks, which specify the respective responsibilities of the system operator and the participants and which provide appropriate incentives to manage and contain those risks. In 2009 Bank of England declares that CHAPS observes this principle. In 2007 report CHAPS declares as RTGS system, settlement process does not involve credit risk as is the case in deferred settlement system. It adds that domestic payments are both irrecoverable and finally at the point where relevant members settlement account is debited. If a paying bank has insufficient funds available on its settlement account with the Bank of England, CHAPS payments cannot be made, and a liquidity crunch in the system could result in a gridlock. The BoE nevertheless notes that CHAPS members do not experience liquidity management difficulties in meeting CLS pay-in deadlines. Principle 4 The system should provide prompt final settlement on the day of value, preferably during the day and at a minimum at the end of the day. (Systems should seek to exceed the minima included in this Core Principle.) In 2009 Bank of England self assessment that CHAPS operates on RTGS basis, minimizing the credit risk and thus observes this principle. In 2003 a report by International Monetary Fund assessment also assessed CHAPS as observing this principle. Principle 5 A system in which multilateral netting takes place should, at a minimum, be capable of ensuring the timely completion of daily settlements in the event of an inability to settle by the participant with the largest single settlement obligation. (Systems should seek to exceed the minima included in this Core Principle.) This principle is not applicable to CHAPS, according to both the IMF 2003 and BoE 2009 reports, since it is a RTGS system. Principle 6 The system should ensure a high degree of security and operational reliability and should have contingency arrangements for timely completion of daily processing. According to Bank of England and International Monetary Fund assessment, CHAPS observe this principle because CHAPS security architecture was founded on the range of policies and procedures governing the security demanded by the Bank of England, SWIFT and as well for the CHAPS members. In 2009 it was declared by BoE that CHAPS security controls and measures effective, and the business continuity, recovery procedures extensive. The BoE encourages the CHAPCo and its members to continue the system arrangements, communication among the members and to improve the operational arrangements to tide over a crisis. Principle 7 The system should provide a means of making payments which is practical for its users and efficient for the economy. According to both, BoE report in 2009 and IMF report in 2003 assessment, CHAPS observes this principle. As Per the 2003 IMF report, the CHAPS security architecture was founded on a range of policies and procedures manuals governing the levels of security demanded of the system operator (the BoE), (SWIFT) and the CHAPS members. The BoE, in its 2009 report, also finds the CHAPS security controls and measures effective, and the business continuity and recovery procedures extensive. The report mentions the Tripartite Resilience Benchmarking Project (TRBP) that underscores the high quality of the system. Principle 8 The system should have objective and publicly disclosed criteria for participation, which permit fair and open access. In 2003 IMF indicate in a report that CHAPS complies with this principle and as per BoE assessment in payment system report that in the country notes CHAPS only broadly observe this principle. This lower rating was assigned by the BoE primarily because of the fee charged for new membership is  £70,000 which BoE deems as inappropriate. Principle 9 The systems governance arrangements should be effective, accountable and transparent. In 2009 BoE and in 2003 IMF assessment indicates that CHAPS observe this principle. As per BoE, CHAPCo has clear governance structure with board having ultimate responsibilities for the management of the system. Further in 2007 the payment council introduced new governance arrangement for UK payment system. Under this CHAPCo is contractually bound to follow the directions of council on issue like integrity and innovation. Principle 10 The central bank should define clearly its payment system objectives and should disclose publicly its role and major policies with respect to systemically important payment systems. In 2003 in IMF report, BoE observe this principle. As noted by the IMF, the BoE published a paper on Oversight of Payment Systems in November 2000, explaining its objectives in regard to the oversight of UK payment systems. BoE had not yet published any follow-up/annual account of its oversight activities. However, in the June 2002 Financial Stability Review (FSR), a useful box was included to give some more detail of BoE oversight. In 2005 report, the BoE states that payment systems in the UK are not subject to statutory oversight, but notes that in its 2005 report, the BoE states that in order to ensure financial stability, the BoE especially focuses on the reliable functioning of systemically important payment systems in the country. Principle 11 The central bank should ensure that the systems it operates comply with the Core Principles. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. The IMF adds that the BoE had, together with CHAPCo and CRESTCo, (company operating the UK securities settlement system CREST and the settlement system for money market instruments, now merged with Euro clear, the European Securities Settlement Agency) developed the RTGS Central System, which it operates and provides to these companies as well as to other settlement systems with net end-of-day settlement. Principle 12 The central bank should oversee compliance with the Core Principles by systems it does not operate and it should have the ability to carry out this oversight. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. As observed by the IMF, the BoE formalized its oversight of UK payment systems with the creation of an Oversight Team in the Market Infrastructure Division with express responsibility for the oversight of payments systems. The BoE also assesses the key UK systems against the core principles. Principle 13 The central bank, in promoting payment system safety and efficiency through the Core Principles, should cooperate with other central banks and with any other relevant domestic or foreign authorities. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. The IMF notes that the BoE has close and frequent contact with its European and Group of Ten (G10) counterparts, both through formal mechanisms in particular G10, European System of Central Banks (ESCB), and EU committees and ad hoc contacts. The BoE also has close contacts with other U.K. authorities, especially through the Tripartite Standing Committee in which senior representatives of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Governor of the BoE and the Chairman of the FSA meet monthly to discuss financial stability; and the U.K. Competition Authorities. The BoE has also signed the Memorandum of Understanding between Payment Systems Overseers and Banking Supervisors in Stage Three of Economic and Monetary Union aimed at promoting cooperation and information sharing between EU payment systems and banking supervisors in relation to large-value interbank transfer systems, in order to ensure the soundness and stability of financial systems and their participating credit institutions. As the BoE website adds, the BoE collaborates with domestic (FSA) and international regulators to provide collective oversight of systems such as Euro clear, Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT), LCH. Responsibilities of the central bank in applying the Core Principles The central Bank should consider the following: The central bank should define the clear objectives of the payment system and as well should relate its publicity role with respect to the importance of payment system. The Central Bank should ensure that the all system operates in accordance with the Core Principles. The central bank should supervise acquiescence with the Core Principles by the systems it does not operate and it should have the ability to carry out this oversight. The central Bank should cooperate with the other central banks of the domestic and foreign for the safety and efficiency of the Payment System through the Core Principles. The Bank of England (BoE) asserts that as the overseer of the payment systems in the United Kingdom (U.K.), it prioritizes its oversight activities in accordance with the risks posed by a system to the overall financial stability. Therefore, it focuses its major attention on the high value payment systems in the country that include CHAPS, BACS, and CREST. A 2009 report of the BoE titled Payment Systems Oversight Report 2008, which is a self-assessment of the UKs payment systems notes that the main systems operate, to a great degree, in accordance with international standards. The report also states that CHAPS, which is defined as a system with systemic significance, observes eight of the nine core principles.

Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush

Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush Review of literature is an essential component of the research process. It aids the researcher in the formulation of the research plan or proposal and condition of the study. It aids in relating the outcomes of the study to the findings of other investigations Review of literature is defined as a critical summary of research on a topic of interest, often prepared to put a research problem in contest (Polit and Beck, 2006). The current study and review of various associated literature and review study, topics can divide as follows; Section A: Literature related to comparison of normal saline and heparin flush  to maintain the patency of intravenous line. Section B: Literature related to cost effectiveness of normal saline flush in  maintenance of peripheral intravenous catheter. Section C: Literature related to complications of using heparin solution for  maintaining patency. Section A: Literature Related to Comparison of Normal Saline and Heparin Flush to Maintain the Patency of Intravenous Line. Elsevier (2009) did a randomized double blind controlled trial to investigate the efficacy of normal saline versus heparin saline in maintaining the patency of intravenous catheter among 150 children of pediatric unit at United States. In that, Group I received normal saline flush (n=77) whereas Group II received heparin saline flush (n=73). The result showed that 72% of children were recovered from blockage during normal saline flush. Thus researcher concluded that the normal saline flush was effective in maintaining the patency of intravenous catheter. Klieiber (2008) conducted prospective, randomized double blind study to determine the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush to maintain the peripheral intravenous lock in pediatric populations among 140 children. The sample was selected randomly into two groups. Group I received normal saline flush whereas Group II children flushed with heparinized saline. The findings revealed that there was no significant difference between the groups in maintaining the patency of catheter and reduces incidence of complications. A randomized controlled double-blind trial was conducted by Esther Mok, Tany KWong (2007) for maintaining peripheral intravenous lock among 123 children of age from one to ten years. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of three flush solutions: normal saline, one unit/ml of heparin saline and ten units/ml of heparin saline for maintaining peripheral intravenous locks in children, and to establish a research-based practice in the study hospital. Group I received one unit/ml of heparin saline, Group II received ten units/ml of heparin saline and Group III received normal saline. The group that received one ml of normal saline demonstrated the highest rate of survival and the mean length of catheter showed (49.8 hours) was seventeen hours longer than the group that received one unit/ml of heparin saline (32.5 hours). The result showed that there was no significant difference among the three types of flushing solution in terms of the catheter longevi ty and incidence of intravenous complications. A study was conducted by Visanu Thamlikitkul Artit Indranoi (2006) on switching from heparinized saline flush to normal saline flush for maintaining peripheral venous catheter patency in the patients hospitalized to medical ward at Sir raj Hospital, Thailand. The study sites were ten medical wards containing two hundred and forty beds. Group I received heparinized saline as a flushing agent whereas Group II received normal saline as a flushing agent. The information on using flush fluids was collected from the physicians order sheets in the medical records at baseline, every two to four weeks during the intervention periods, and at six months after launching intervention. The results showed that the children received heparinized saline flush in February 2005, switched on to a practice with normal saline flush in June and November 2005. Hence the researcher concluded that normal saline was effective and implemented as evidence based clinical practice. Janet Pettit (2003) performed a randomized double blind study to identify the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush to maintain the peripheral intravenous lock in pediatric populations among 124 infants over twenty eight days of age in pediatric ICU at Doctors Medical Centre, Modeto. The findings revealed that saline flush had longer period of patency. Thus the researcher concluded that saline was efficacious and safest flush in maintaining the peripheral intravenous catheter. Nelson (2002) conducted a randomized double blind study to assess the use of 0.9% normal saline flush with or without heparin for maintaining peripheral indwelling intermittent infusion devices among fifty eight children up to one year with twenty four gauge needle. Group I received ten units per ml of heparin solution (n=26) and Group II received 0.9% normal saline flush (n=32). The result showed that there was no significance between 0.9% normal saline flush with or without heparin solutions in maintaining patency of twenty four gauge peripheral intermittent intravenous devices in children younger than one year. Schultz, Drew Hewitt (2002) investigated a randomized double blind study on comparison of normal saline and heparinized saline flushes for patency of intravenous locks among forty nine neonates at Maine Medical Center, Portland. The objective of the study was to determine the efficacy of patency of intravenous locks maintained with normal saline solution compared with heparinized saline solution. Group I received 0.5 ml of heparinized saline flush containing two units/ml of heparin (n=20) whereas Group II received 0.5 ml of normal saline flush (n=29). There were no significant difference (p =0.841) between mean scores for heparin flushed catheters (M = 41.5 hours, SD = 44.0) and saline-flushed catheters (M = 30.4 hours, SD = 20.8). The researcher concluded that catheter failure was significantly longer for catheters flushed with heparinized saline compared with those flushed with normal saline. A study was conducted by Harahan Berends (2000) to evaluate the efficacy of saline versus ten units/ml heparin for peripheral intravenous flushes among 240 neonates of Special Care Nurseries at a Level III Large Mid Western University Teaching Hospital. Here an experimental group design was used to compare the longevity of heparin and saline intravenous locks. Data were collected from a convenient sampling technique. Group I received ten units per ml of heparin (n=123) whereas Group II received preservative-free normal saline solution (n=117). The result showed that there was no significant statistical difference in intravenous catheter longevity between intravenous locks flushed with ten units/ml heparin and those flushed with normal saline. Krista Brown, Tay-Uyboco Douglas McMillan (1999) did a randomized controlled trial to determine the relative efficacy and safety of peripheral intravenous locks maintained with heparin saline solutions compared with those maintained with normal saline among 186 neonates at Foot Hills Hospital, Calgary, Alberta. Group I received normal saline (n=93) whereas Group II received heparin saline (n=93). Patients were chosen to receive either heparinized saline with five units/ml or 0.3 ml of normal saline, in the intravenous catheter every six hourly, administered by nursing staff in a blinded manner. The result showed that there was no difference in catheter lifespan (39 ±24 hour for the heparinized saline group; 34 ±22 hour for the normal saline group) and no difference in the number of intravenous catheters per patient (1.9 heparinized group, 1.6 normal saline group). The researcher concluded that there was no difference between heparinized normal saline and normal saline flush in neonates in maintaining the patency of twenty four gauge peripheral intravenous locks. Heilskov, Kleiber Johnson (1998) did a randomized double blind controlled 3-arm trial of heparin and saline for maintaining intravenous locks among ninety neonates at University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, USA. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of saline, heparin two units (U) per ml saline, and heparin ten units per ml saline flush solutions on the duration of intravenous locks and the incidence of intravenous infiltration in neonates. Group I received heparin two units/ml saline (n=27), Group II received heparin ten units/ml saline flush (n=28) and Group III received normal saline (n=25). Catheter flushed at least every six hourly. The outcome measures total hours from the time the intravenous was inserted to the time the intravenous was removed; hours from the time the intravenous was first flushed to the time the intravenous was removed; number of intravenous removed because of infiltration. The result showed that there was no statistical or clinical dif ference between the three groups for duration of intravenous therapy or for incidence of complications. Bridget Mudge, Dion Forcsier Mary Jo Slattery (1998) conducted a comparative study on heparin and saline flush solutions regarding patency of 24-gauge peripheral intermittent infusion devices. A prospective, non-randomized, sequential, blinded study design was conducted on a pediatric and a neonatal were similar for age, peripheral intermittent intravenous devices (PIID) placement site, irritating substances infused, and initial IV function. The median duration of catheters flushed with normal saline was 42 hours and with heparin was 35.3 hours. Kaplan-Meier Survival Analysis indicated that the duration of catheters flushed with saline was significantly longer than those flushed with heparin (p = .02). More catheters flushed with heparin were removed because of problems (p = .027). Results of this study suggested that normal saline was more effective than heparin in maintaining the patency of small, 24-gauge catheter. Kotter (1996) conducted a randomized double blind study on heparin versus saline to maintain the patency of intermittent intravenous device maintenance among fifty one neonates including premature neonates, less than one month of age admitted to a Level II Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Group I received ten units/ml heparin (n=27), whereas Group II received normal saline flush (n=24). Catheter was flushed every fourth hourly with heparin or normal saline solutions. The researcher concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in average duration of patency between normal saline-flushed catheters and heparinized saline-flushed catheters. Phlebitis, occlusion, infiltration, and leaking occurred with equal frequency for both solutions. Kulkarni, Elsner, Ouellet Zeldin (1994) investigated a randomized double blind study on heparinized saline versus normal saline in maintaining patency of the radial artery catheter among seventy eight adults in the surgical intensive care unit of Toronto East General Orthopedic Hospital. The objective of the study was to compare the ability of normal saline versus heparinized saline infusion to maintain patency of the radial artery catheter used for monitoring blood pressure or multiple blood sampling. Group I (n=40) patients those who were admitted on odd numbered dates received heparinized saline two units per ml and Group II (n=38) admitted on even dates received normal saline, both as continuous flush solutions. At 96 hours of cannulation, 92% of the catheters in the heparinized saline group were patent compared with 74% in the normal saline group. The result showed that there was no significant difference between flushing with normal saline and heparinized saline in the mainte nance of radial arterial line patency. A comparative randomized controlled trial was conducted by Robertson (1994) on the intermittent intravenous therapy to determine whether heparinized saline solution was a superior flushing agent to normal saline among152 children between the ages of two months to eighteen years. Group I were allocated with heparinized saline as a flushing agent, and Group II were allocated with normal saline as a flushing agent. Each day intravenous sites were examined for signs of phlebitis and on removal of each cannula was flushed to check for fibrin. On Chi-square testing, highly significant associations emerged between the incidence of phlebitis and the use of the intravenous antibiotics such as Tobramycin (p=0.05) andor Timentin (p=0.008). Young children were found to have a significantly higher incidence of blocked cannulae regardless of the flushing solution used. The researcher concluded that there was no significant difference detected in either the duration of intravenous therapy, the pate ncy of the intravenous line or the incidence of phlebitis when normal saline was used to flush the intravenous cannula. Kleiber, Harahan, Fagan Zittergruen (1993) conducted a double-blind study to determine the efficacy of saline versus heparin flush solution to maintain peripheral intravenous locks in a pediatric population among 124 infants over twenty eight days of age. Group I received normal saline as a flushing agent, whereas Group II received normal saline with heparin as a flushing agent. The result revealed that the heparin and saline groups were comparable for total hour duration of the intravenous and for incidence of complications. Hence the researcher concluded that saline was efficacious in maintaining patency of intermittent intravenous peripheral intravenous locks in children. A comparative study was conducted by Rob, Kelly Trish (1992) on normal saline or heparinized saline flushing on function of arterial lines among sixty-five patients in most New Zealand intensive care units. Group I received normal saline (n=35) where as Group II received three ml/hour as a continuous flush. The scores for the intravascular line for each patient were summed, and the percentage of the total possible score was calculated. Mean study duration was 5.8 and 6.6 days for the normal saline and heparinized saline groups, respectively. Mean percentage scores were 83% with normal saline group and 82% with heparinized saline group. The statistical findings showed that there was no difference between the groups at 95% confidence interval. Thus researcher concluded that heparin as a continuous flush at three units/hour does not improve the function of arterial lines compared with a continuous normal-saline flush. A quasi-experimental study was conducted by Tuten Gueldner (1991) on the efficacy of normal saline versus diluted heparin for maintaining the patency of peripheral intermittent intravenous devices in hospitalized medical-surgical patients among seventy seven children. Group I received normal saline solution, whereas Group II received diluted heparin. The statistical findings revealed that there were no incidence of site loss due to coagulation in either group, moreover no significant difference in the incidence of site loss associated with phlebitis (p=0.708) or infiltration (p=0.910). The researcher concluded that normal saline may be an effective alternative to heparin, for maintaining the patency of peripheral intermittent intravenous devices. Ashton, Gibson Summers (1990) conducted a randomized double-blind study on the effects of heparin versus saline solution on intermittent infusion device irrigation at Shawnee Mission Medical Center among thirty two patients. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of one ml of 0.9% normal saline with ten units of heparin in one ml normal saline solution, in maintaining patency and reducing the incidence of phlebitis in patients with intermittent infusion devices. The statistical findings revealed that there was no significant difference between the groups in phlebitis or patency variables. The researcher suggested that 0.9% normal saline was as effective as ten units per ml of heparin in normal saline solution in maintaining intermittent infusion device patency and preventing phlebitis. Hamilton, Plis, Clay Sylvan (1988) conducted a randomized double-blind study on heparin saline versus 0.9% normal saline injection for maintaining patency of indwelling intermittent infusion devices in the Department of Pharmacy practice, Albany College among 307 adult patients. Group I received one ml of heparin saline as a flushing solution (n=170), whereas Group II received 0.9% normal saline flush solution (n=137). The result revealed that heparin offers no advantage over 0.9% normal saline injection in maintaining the patency of intermittent intravenous devices. The researcher concluded that there was no significant difference in the duration of catheter patency or incidence of phlebitis was observed between the groups. Epperson (1984) did a randomized study on the efficacy of 0.9% normal saline with and without heparin for maintaining indwelling intermittent injection sites in the medical and surgical units of an acute-care hospital among 412 patients. Three different solutions were used to flush intravenous catheters. Group I were flushed with 0.9% normal saline alone, Group II were flushed with heparin 10 units/ml in 0.9% normal saline and group III were flushed with heparin 100 units/ml in 0.9% normal saline. Heparin locks were flushed after each medication administration and every eight hours when medications were not being given. Using a standardized evaluation form, one of five intravenous therapists evaluated each site daily for the presence of phlebitis and loss of patency. Length of catheter placement and the percentage of patient days during which patients received cephalosporin and penicillin antibiotics were examined for each group. Rates of site loss caused by phlebitis or loss of pate ncy were compared in each group. The result showed that there was no significant differences were found among the three groups in the mean duration of heparin-lock placement, the percentage of patient days during which antibiotics were prescribed, or the rate of site loss caused by phlebitis or loss of patency. Section B: Literature Related to Cost Effectiveness of Normal Saline in Maintenance of Peripheral Intravenous Catheter. Hephzibah Alexander (International Journal for the Advancement of Science Arts, 2010) conducted a systematic review of the study on heparin versus normal saline as a flush solution. The electronic database of Ovid, Pub-Med, the Cochrane Library and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) was searched for heparin or normal saline (either singly or in combinations). Relevant studies were critically appraised and evidence obtained was graded according to the modified Catalan Agency for Health Technology Assessment scale (CAHTA). In terms of safety, the findings indicate that it might be safer to use normal saline as it does not have the risks associated with heparin. Cost analysis studies proved that without any doubt the use of normal saline flush results in a significant amount of cost savings. For arterial catheters, majority of the available data suggest that heparin saline given as a continuous flush at low doses improved catheter patency. The result of the study reveal ed that normal saline should be used as an alternative to heparin in intravenous catheters. Low-dose heparin with 0.25 units per ml normal saline should be added to the infuscate to maintain patency of arterial catheters. The researcher concluded that heparin as an intermittent flush was ineffective and normal saline was just as effective as and more efficacious than heparin. Karen Le Duce (1997) investigated a prospective, randomized, double blind controlled trial on the efficacy of normal saline solution versus heparin solution for maintaining patency of peripheral intravenous catheters in children at the emergency department of childrens hospital, USA among 150 children. The purpose of this study was to establish the effects of heparin flush and saline solution flush solutions in maintaining patency of infusion devices in the pediatric population, and to establish cost-saving implications related to normal saline solution versus heparin flush for PIIDs in terms of pharmacy costs and costs related to nursing time to both procedures. Group I (n = 77) received 3 ml of a ten units heparin/ml normal saline solution intravenous flush whereas Group II (n = 73) received three ml of normal saline solution for the intravenous flush. Descriptive and correlation statistics were used to analyze the data. The result showed that there were no significant differences between the two groups for demographics or complications. Annual cost savings were computed with an estimated annual savings of nursing time and unit cost of solutions equaling $27,594. The researcher concluded that the normal saline solution should be used as an alternative to heparin solutions for the maintenance of peripheral intravenous devices. Jerri Shoaf Sandra Oliver (1997) did a study on the efficacy of normal saline with and without heparin for maintaining intermittent intravenous site in the coronary care unit of Scott and White Memorial Hospital among two hundred and sixty surgical patients. Group I received normal saline with heparin as a flushing agent, whereas Group II received normal saline without heparin as a flushing agent. The researcher concluded that heparinized saline was not needed to maintain the patency of an intermittent intravenous site, and the use of saline solution alone was less irritating, causes less occurrence of phlebitis, less expensive to patients, and saves nursing time. A randomized comparative study conducted by Paisley et al (1997) on the use of heparin and normal saline flushes in neonatal intravenous catheters among eighty seven preterm and term infants ranging from 33 weeks to 44 weeks of gestation in the University of Missouri-Columbia Childrens Hospital. Data were collected between February 1994 and March 1995. The majority of infants were thirty eight to forty weeks gestation (M = 38.46 weeks, S.D. = 2.48). Group I (n=33) infants received 0.6 ml of heparin solution containing 10 units/ml of heparin and Group II (n=54) received 0.6 ml of normal saline as flushing agent. The frequency of flush was 0.6 ml flush every fourth hourly. The researcher concluded that the normal saline was much cheaper than heparin. Nursing time was saved using a single solution and physician spends time in writing order was saved by standing orders. If only normal saline was used, the chance for error, over dosage, heparin-associated drug incompatibilities and hepari n induced thrombocytopenia would be eliminated. Section C: Literature Related To Complications Of Using Heparin Solution For Maintaining Patency. Mitchell et al (2009) conducted a study on a systematic review of heparin flushing and other interventions to maintain patency of central venous catheters. The objective of this study was to assess clinical studies comparing the effectiveness of different means of maintaining central venous catheter patency. A search was conducted using the MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane, National Guideline Clearinghouse and University Health System Consortium databases. The method was a systematic review of effectiveness using grade criteria to assess the strength of evidence for each intervention. Flushing with heparin was a routine part of central venous catheter maintenance, but it presents risk, including heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Other techniques used to prevent occlusion of catheters include saline flushes, heparin-bonded catheters and pressure caps. The result showed that flushing catheters with saline solution was more effective than flushing with heparin. A study was conducted by Stephens et al (1997) on normal saline versus heparin flush for maintaining central venous catheter patency during aphaeresis collection of peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCS) among seventy eight cancer patients. The purpose of this study was to examine the incidence of thrombotic occlusions in central venous catheters using heparin compared to saline flushing. Group I (n=29) received saline flushes and Group II (n=49) received heparin with 100 units per ml of saline flushes. Numerous studies comparing heparin to saline flushing in peripheral devices suggested equal rates of thrombotic occlusions. The outcome of the study suggested that serious complications including drug interactions and heparin induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis syndrome in association with heparin flushing. The researcher concluded that saline was as effective as heparin for maintaining patency of central venous catheters. Triolo, Pamela Goode (1991) conducted a study on meta-analysis to estimate the effects of heparin flush and saline flush solutions on maintaining patency, preventing phlebitis, and increasing duration in peripheral heparin locks. The researcher concluded that saline was as effective as heparin in maintaining patency, preventing phlebitis, and increasing duration in peripheral intravenous locks. Quality of care can be enhanced by using saline as the flush solution, thereby eliminating problems associated with anticoagulant effects and drug incompatibilities. In addition, an estimated yearly savings of $109,100,000 to $218,200,000 U.S. health care dollars could be attained. Barrett Lester (1990) did a double-blinded, cross-over study on heparin versus saline flushing solutions for a period of two months in a small community hospital at Aroostook Medical Centre, Presque Isle. Floor nurses were used as observers and observe catheter failures, as either loss of patency or phlebitis. Data revealed a statistically significant advantage to using saline flushes when both loss of patency and phlebitis were combined (p

A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings :: Literary Analysis, Gabriel Marquez

The residents of the little town in the story â€Å"A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,† by Gabriel Marquez, did not understand that they very well could have been in the midst of one of gods’ heavenly creatures. The old man that Pelayo found groveling in the mud on the beach, had wings like an angel, he didn’t speak their language like an angel might not, and he was peaceful and innocent like angel might be. But since he didn’t fit the exact â€Å"standards† of grandeur that the people thought that angels should have, they disregarded him, and set him aside as being irrelevant and â€Å"†¦father Gonzaga was forever cured of his insomnia†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (403). In the text â€Å"A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,† the townspeople’s inability to determine the winged mans’ â€Å"being† highlights their paradigms. The townspeople determine that the old man does not fit the â€Å"criteria† of an angel. They disregarded him partly because of â€Å"His huge buzzard wings, dirty and half plucked† (401), He was old and decrepit and seemed crazy. Also, Angels are thought of as elegant and beautiful with a sort of spiritual presence. But instead the old man looked like a â€Å"rag picker† (401), and smelled of the wilderness. Next, the priest tries testing the man to see if he could speak Latin, â€Å"the language of god.† But since the man could not speak Latin, he was under the â€Å"suspicion of an imposter† (401), he was thought of as the devils â€Å"carnival trick† (401). Moreover, the man’s main significant terrestrial qualities were his wings and his oddity. As far as how angels are thought of, The only other feature that closely resembled a celestial being was that he could take everything that his spectators did to him as if â€Å"His onl y supernatural virtue seemed to be patience† (401). But his imperturbability and innocence are very misinterpreted by the people and taken advantage of to the extreme. The townspeople are cruel and treat he man poorly because they don’t understand him. They pull out some of his remaining feathers to â€Å"touch their defective parts† (402). The people have the audacity to take from the man, without permission, in an attempt to add to themselves and seem to feel no remorse for their taking. Also, at one point in the story a spectator burns him with an iron for branding steers, because they thought that maybe he was dead.

Sickle Cell Anemia :: Health, Medicine, Cells

Sickle cell anemia primarily affects people with African, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and Indian ancestry (Learn genetics, 2010; NHLBI, n.d.; Vorvick et al., 2010). Sickle cell anemia occurs when a person inherits two sickle cell gene, one from each parent, that cause the red blood cells to change and become crescent shaped. The underlying problem involves hemoglobin, a component of the red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs (Nabili, 2008, para. 1). In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin is flawed. As a result, the cells become sickle shaped and can’t travel as easily through blood vessels. Sickle cell anemia is an illness which has one primary cause, but a variety of symptoms and treatments. Like most illnesses, sickle cell anemia has one primary cause. In order for sickle cell anemia to occur, a sickle cell gene must be inherited from both the mother and the father, so that the child has two sickle cell genes (Shiel, 2006, para. 3). The sickle cell gene causes the body to make abnormal hemoglobin. As mentioned above, hemoglobin is a protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs (Nabili, 2008, para. 1). A person with normal red blood cell will have hemoglobin A, however a person with sickle cell disease will have hemoglobin S (Sickle cell Disease Association of America, Inc.,2005, para 3). Normal red blood cells are usually round and soft and travel easily through small vessels; however sickle cells are abnormally shaped and stiff, thus causing them to have difficulty travelling through small vessels. Sickle cells can clog vessels depriving tissues of oxygen. A s spoken of in two articles, sickle cells have a shorter life span than normal red blood cells. Normal red blood cells can live 120 days compared to sickle cells that only last 10 to 20 days, resulting in anemia. (Learn genetics, 2010 & Nabili, 2008) Sickle cell anemia does not only have one primary cause, but also has a variety of symptoms. Sickle cell anemia has various symptoms that may vary upon every individual. All the symptoms that a person may experience are basically the direct result of the abnormal shaped blood cells. These cells deprive tissues of oxygen and in time the lack of oxygen to the tissues damages the organs and leads to pain.

Native Americans Essay

Squanto:  ·Was sold into slavery  ·Wampanoag  ·Translator, not a cheif  ·Was a schemer  ·Friendy towards europeans/whites  ·Joined the pilgram community  ·A Patuxet  ·Belonged to the Wampanoag tribe  ·Dies in his late 30s Pwwhatan:  ·Chief  ·Wanted what was best for his tribe  ·Did not like europeans/whites  ·Agressive  ·Stood his ground  ·Died in his late 70s Similarities:  ·Both were Native Americans Compare and Contrast Chart: Native American Tribes Tribe #1: Kickapoo Government: All Kickapoo followed the traditional division of labor, placing hunting activities and protection of the village or camp in the charge of men who also cleared new feilds for planting. Women were mainly responsible for gathering wild plant foods, planting and tending crops, building houses, cooking, and child care. On large hunting campaigns, everyone helped, the women processed the meat and later the hides of the animals that the men killed. Economy: Practiced hunting and gathering, mainly deer and bison as well as other game. Wild plants and nuts were supplemented by the maize, beans, and pumpkins they planted in the spring. The Kickapoo became involved in the fur trade and later delt with other goods as well, after comming in contact with the Europeans. The Kickapoo were ultimately becoming known as shrewd traders. Religion: Belief in spirit messengers. The supreme deity is Kisiihiat, who created the world and resides in the sky. Culture: The culture hero, Wiaaka, the son of Kisiihiat, who created the Indian world and taught the Kickapoo to build their houses, which are vital elements to the Kickapoo religion. Religious practice is organized around sacred bundles for clans and herbal societies. Tribe #2: Wampanoag Government: The Wampanoag had a matrilineal system, in which women controlled property and hereditary ststus was passed though the maternal line. Female elders approved selection of chiefs or sachems, although males had most of the political roles for relations between tribes and warfare. The Wampanoag were organized into a confederation, where head sachem/political leader presided over a number of other sachems. Economy: The Wampanoag had a traditional economy based on fishing and agriculture. Religion: The Wampanoag’s religion was called Spiritualism. They thanked Mother Earth, animals, plants, birds, fish, and all living things for the gifts they gave to the Wampanoag. Women were the spiritual leaders of their households. One of the religious holidays the Wampanoag celebrated was the Wampanoag New Year. This celebration took place in the spring. The Wampanoag also prayed in the spring when they planted seeds. Culture: The Wampanoag originally spoke a dialect of the Massachusett-Wampanoag language, which belongs to the Algonquian language family.

Black Mans Burden

It's has been a very discussed topic whether the color of ones skin still can be a burden in today's society or not. For Instance are the black people, and especially In South America racism Is a big Issue. Thus racism Is weakened compared to centuries ago, it is still present in not only a big part of America but in the rest of the world as well. Racism is one of the main issues, that the American author Kisses Layman is dealing with in his writings.Layman is black himself and in his work â€Å"How to slowly Kill Yourself and Others In America† he shows us his personally story, which Is filled tit trials and reflections that lightens under-appreciated aspects of the modern American life. In the following essay will be examining a remembrance of Layman's essay from the web magazine Gawkier, which was published the 28 of July 2012, to see how Layman gets his intention across. Layman grew up in Mississippi with a childhood embossed of racism and violence. This was a part of his everyday life.To outline the central problem that this text is dealing with, it is important to emphasize that ones skin color is still very important In many societies today. For Instance there Is the real life episode with the Police Officer Darrel Wilson who shot and killed the arrear old young black unarmed man named Michael Brown. These racially issues are the ones Layman has been struggled with during his upbringing. It is therefore these issues he wants to draw attention to In his essay. Layman speaks of personal experiences In his works, and this type of argumentation Is called ethos.He Is using ethos to emphasize the burden that comes with for blacks in a white-controlled society. I believe that Layman's intention with his writings is to make people live their lives as they wish and intend to. That is why freedom† Is a very Important point In Layman's writings. This is further shown In the essay: â€Å"How free can you be If you really accept that white folks are the traffic cops of your life? Mama tells me that she is not talking about freedom. She says that she is talking about survival. 1 This quotation is very important, because it highlights Layman's life values compared to Layman's mother, who always taught him to be well behaved In a society controlled by white people. Layman was well behaved In his early years, but after several years of being treated badly, Just because of his skin-color, Layman had had enough. Layman became a boy with a lot of anger and frustration, and I think that through his writings he got vent for his feelings. First of all he starts in medias race: â€Å"I've had guns pulled on me by four people under Central Mississippi skies†¦ 2 This dramatic and brutal start is very catchy. Secondly the language in his essay is very brutal and dramatic as well. He Is using words like gun, Niger and buck, which have a negative connotation. Thirdly he Is using flashbacks In a way that I haven't read before. Layman is over all writing about his young days in Mississippi, but sometimes he is OFF further shown in the essay: â€Å"16 months later, I'm 18, three years older than Edward Evans will be when he is shot in the head behind an abandoned home in Jackson. 3 By using this very unspectacular way of writing, he gets to his audience with the way of persuasion called pathos, where he is relating to the feelings. These parallels that he is using are episodes, which have happened in the last couple of years. He therefore achieves to make his past familiar with the racially issues that goes on today. The only difference is that he has survived, and the kids he is relating to have men killed. Likely because of racially issues.One of the persons who did not support his strong opinions was his mother. Layman therefore took distance to his mother, when she once pulled a gun to his face. To Layman this complex of problem was about the freedom that the black people weren't in possession of in Mississippi. To L ayman's mother it was a matter of survival, and therefore it was very important to her that they would fit in as much as possible. Thus Layman has gotten death treats; it has not stopped him from writing or drawing attention to these issues.Overall, Layman is using ethos to make his audience relate as much as possible through his personal experiences during his upbringing in Mississippi. An episode that Layman uses and which supports the theme racism is when an undercover â€Å"white† cop once pulled a gun at him. We most assume that this cop, called John Deere, pulls a gun at Layman, Troy, Cleat and Leighton because of their skin color since Deere shouts â€Å"Niger lovers† at them. By using ethos Layman achieves to get his audience attention since Layman's personal experiences are truthful, chocking and provocative.His writings however are aimed to a wide American target audience, and since Layman is a very intelligent and proficient writer, I think, that he achieves to get a lot of peoples' attention. He writes in a very special way, which catches the audience attention very quickly. All in all, the remembrance is a display of Layman's personal life where racism and violence is still present. Layman wants to draw attention to racism and violence. He wants people to say yes to life instead of letting some people being the â€Å"traffic cops† in your life, because of the burden that comes with when you are colored.

How Is Science Combating Food Shortages in Africa Essay

Africa has been fighting a constant battle against starvation for decades. What with an uncontrollably growing population and harsh dry climate, its no wonder that not only Africa, but the world could be in for a big crisis: the lack of food. With over 7 billion people in this world to feed, one billion in Africa, its a wonder that our planet can support this mass population, and the situation is going to get much worse unless there is a solution as to how the shortage of food can be fixed. Since the 1970’s, scientists have experimented with Genetically Modified foods (GM foods). That means that they’ve changed the organisms, and the DNA, in order to enhance some aspects of the food or fix any possible faults. So far, GM organisms have proved to increase food production, which is a relevant and effective solution. This solution has indeed raised arguments, creating economical, ethical and societal implications. Genetically modified foods could be the solution to save Africa from the endless starvation and malnourishment. It offers something completely new; it is a biotechnical solution that is different to any other option considered to aid those suffering from the lack of food in Africa. GM crops grow faster, produce much more, need less time and less labor. It would be a permanent solution. Unlike transferring food across the oceans in order to give aid, GM foods would be able to be produced in the countries that actually will need and use them, instead of relying on other wealthier nations to bring it to them. This would also teach these less developed countries how to manage on their own, and not being supported or aided by the more economically developed countries. Even more positive aspects of this solution are, that these GM crops have longer shelf-life, meaning that they do not have to be consumed immediately, but they can be stored for longer. Furthermore; they don’t require as many natural resources and materials as normal crops, which is good cause Africa itself doesn’t offer that many, which is one of the reasons as to why it’s in the situation that it is in right now. This would give an exceptional amount of aid and hope to the people of Africa as it would fix one major issue that has been developing throughout the years, and help them defeat other problems that their nations are facing. However, there are always downsides to these new inventions. Firstly, GM foods haven’t been in the know for long enough to know if they have any side affects that humans should be concerned of. Many people resist the idea of genetical modification because of this uncertainty. The foods and crops could always trigger allergic reactions, which might be fatal in nations that offer poor medical aid, or any health impacts for humans and even animals. However, the certainty that these problems exist is only an assumption. For as far we know, there might be no bad consequences or effects that GMO’s might bring. Another issue is how this will work in the nations of Africa. The leaders of the nations might decide that this is an uncertain and doubtful solution, that might only bring harm to their countries. Or some nations might fear change, even if it could help the starvation issues that they’re struggling with. The only thing that the developed nations could do in this case, would be to try and negotiate as to how this solution can help them, not only temporarily but in the long run as well. Also, it will be a very cheap solution, which will be a major attraction to many nation as their economical situations aren’t that great. Furthermore, the annual cost of individuals having to purchase the genetically modified seeds will be an issue, as the continent is generally very poor. The effect of growing and consuming genetically modified crops is still unknown, however many possible and realistic assumptions have been made. A possible dilemma is the harm that these organisms could cause to other organisms in the nature. For an example, the mortality rate of monarch butterfly caterpillars has gone up recently, due to the wind blowing pollen from genetically modified B.t corn to milkweed plants, that the caterpillars consume. A nature study was held in order to find out whether this was true or not, and the results were in fact pointing towards the pollen being the cause of death. There are also countless other victims of genetic engineering, however they cannot be prevented as the toxins that kill the pests are also harmful to other insects. Unfortunately, in order to grow healthy crops without a financial loss, the use of these B.t toxins is essential. Another issue that could arise from this is cross-breeding of these herbicide tolerant crops and the weeds themselves, resulting in a ‘superweed’ that would be immune to these toxins. That could cause in mass destruction of crops and a great financial loss to the farmers, as well as an unnatural new specie. An issue that could arise within the use of GM crops is the strain on the economies of the nations using them. It would be quite expensive to transport the GM foods across the globe, and it would also take some time. Also, the cost of these seeds can be expected to rise due to the technology used to create them. A more developed country and farm could possibly afford the annual cost of these crops, however a less economically developed country cannot. A solution for this problem could be funding the production and research of GM foods. An example of such a funder is the Rockefeller Foundation, who has founded the research and production of genetically modified rice. GM rice would be a very costly process but with the help of funders and other wealthy companies the cost of expense can be reduced. Since the population of already 7 billion is estimated to almost double in the upcoming 50 years, the worlds biggest dilemma at the moment is to find a solution as to how to feed all these people and how our natural resources won’t be all used up. GM crops is one of the many solutions thought to solve this problem, however, like the rest of them, it comes with many different positive and negative aspects. Furthermore, since it is such a new invention, and not a lot of research has been done yet, the effects and consequences are unknown. If the massive population growth could be stalled for a few decades, say by introducing a one-child-policy, then the development of solutions such as GM crops could be completed meanwhile. This would be a really effective way to provide food aid to the peoples of the world, especially Africa, in order to defeat hunger and starvation, and it would also slow down the growth of the population, maybe even declining it.